Effect of cigarette smoking on kidney functions
Introduction The kidneys play a major role in the control of the consistency of the internal environment. The blood passing through the kidneys is first filtrated (glomerular filtration) so that all the constituents, except blood cells and plasma proteins, go into the microtubular systems. In the kidneys the useful substances are quickly reabsorbed but unwanted substances escape filtration and are actively excreted in urine. (Krungkrai S, 2001). However, renal function tests are important t...
Teratogen and physiological effects on organogenesis
A human teratogen is an agent that alters the growth or structure of the developing embryo or fetus, thereby causing birth defects. The first human teratogen identified in 1941 by an ophthalmologist, Norman Gregg, was maternal rubella infection in pregnancy, which produced a triad of defects (cataracts, heart malformations, and deafness) in the infants (Gregg, 1991). Teratogens are environmental agents such as drugs, viruses, lack of nutrients, and physical or chemical elements that upon ...