ABSTRACT
The nutritional and chemical constituents of different extracts of Neem leaf (Azdirachta indica) and their effect on the haematology and histopathology of Wistar Albino Rats were investigated. The samples analyzed includes processed and unprocessed leaves extract of Neem plant using cold water, hot water, 40% ethanol, 30% methanol, 70% ethanol and methanol; And also,Wistar Albino Rats (25) which were administered with extracts(processed and unprocessed) were divided into five(5) groups having five in each cage and one group as control. The phyotchemistry of the Neem leaves extract were determined in triplicates, qualitatively and quantitatively using standard methods. The proximate study carried out on the processed and unprocessed was observed to contain carbohydrate ˃ moisture ˃ fat ˃ fibre ˃ protein ˃ ash. Phytochemical studies on the leaves determined, detected presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, saponnins, oxalate, phenol, tannin, steriod, glycosides, reducing sugar and carbohydrate. The results are presented as mean ± STD of trplicate determination and means were compared using one-way ANOVA statitical analysis at 0.05 significance level. Rutin, ranging from 0.000 ± 0.01 to 77.543 ± 0.040,was observed to have high yield present in the processed and unprocessed leaves (14.290 ± 0.010 to 77.543 ± 0.040) while spartein was the lowest (0.002 ± 0.00 to 0.005 ± 0.00). The vitamins A,C,E and Riboflavin were determined, ranging from 0.89 ± 0.007 to 375.74 ± 1.22 amongst all samples,vitamin c was observed to be in high yield than any other of the vitamins. The total mineral concentration present in neem plant leaves extract were determined; and it was observed to contain Manganese , cobalt, zinc, copper, lead, nickel, sodium, potassium, magnesium and chromium ranging from 0.003 to 23.529; But magnesium was observed to be in high yield ranging from 20.768 to 23.529.The haematological study of the animals treated using the processed leaves extract and after 24 hours of starvation were observed to have high count of platelets when compared with the controls(220 μl/kg to 350μl/kg);also the WBC count range was significantly decreased (4.0 to 14.0) /L when observed with the controls(13.00±0.00)/L,the RBC showed a significant increase, ranging from 4.5μl to 7.2μl when compared with the control(4.5±0.00)/L.The HB count significantly increased from 10.7g/dl to 16.7g/dl when compared with the control(10.70±0.00)g/dL. The Histopathological study using liver and kidney,viewed under light microscope revealed spots and damages of the heart and liver,leading to distortion and haemorrhage. In conclusion,the consumption of alcoholic neem leaves extract during starvation and without dosage is toxic,harmful and can lead to death,especially when allowed to ferment due to bacteria activities than the hot water and tap water extract of neem leaves which is more safe to consumed with or without meal .
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page i
Certification ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgement iv
Abstract v
Table of contents vi-xi
List of Table xii
List of figure xiii-xix
List of abbreviation xx
CHAPTER ONE
1.0. Introduction 1
1.1 Back Ground of Study 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem 3
1.3. AIM AND OBJECTIVES 4
1.3.1.AIM 4
1.3.2. OBJECTIVES. 4
1.4. SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY 4
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW 5
2.1 Azadirachtaindica (Neem). 5
2.2. Neem in Hindu Mythology 10
2.3. NEEM AS A WEED 11
2.4 TAXONOMICAL CLASSIFICATION OF NEEM. 11
2.5. Chemical Properties 12
2.6. CHEMISTRY OF NEEM: 13 2.7. USES AND BENEFITS OF NEEM TREE PARTS. 16
2.7.1 USES 16
2.7.1.1.STORAGE 16
2.7.1.2. INSECTICDES 16
2.8.Cosmetic uses 16
2.9.VEGETABLE USE OF NEEM 17
2.10.TRADITIONAL MEDICINAL USE OF NEEM 17
2.11. Name and uses of neem tree in the different African countries 18
2.12.Panacea for All Diseases: 22
2.13. Benefits of Neem Tree parts 22
2.13.1.Benefits of Neem leaves 22
2.13.1.1.Eye problems 23
2.13.1.2.Viral Diseases 23
2.14.Neem Effects against Bacteria 23
2.15.Neem Effects against Viruses 24
2.16.Neem Effects against Fungi 24
2.17.Neem Effects against Parasites 25
2.17.1.De-worming 26
2.17.2.Cardiac Care: 26
2.17.3.Natural Pesticide: 27
2.17.4.Fungal Diseases: 27
2.17.5.Post-Parturition Disorder 27
2.17.6.Skin Care: 28
2.18. neem and diabetes 28
2.19. Uses of Neem Seeds and Fruits 30
2.19.1.Skin Problems 30
2.19.2.Hair Care 30
2.19.3.Eye and Ear Infections: 30
2.20.Other Ailments: 31
2.20.1.Malaria: 31
2.20.2. neem cake organic manure 31
2.20.3.Components 31
2.20.4.Use as a fertilizer 32
2.20.5.Pest control 32
2.21.Neem Disadvantages: 33
2.21.1.Strong Smell: 33
2.21.2.Bitter Taste 33
2.21.3.DANGER: 34
2.22.CHOLESTEROL 34
2.23. USE AS CONTRACEPTIVE IN BOTH MALE AND FEMALE: 35
2.23.1.NEEM OIL - DIRECT USE: 36
2.24.NEEM - CONTRACEPTIVE FOR MEN: 36
2.25.Insect Repellent: 37
2.26.Flea Repellent : 37
2.27.Uses of Neem Bark 38
2.27.1.Oral Health 38
2.27.2.Fever 38
2.27.3.Pile 38
2.28.Uses of Neem Flower 38-39
2.29. Other Medical Benefits of Neem Tree 39
2.29.1.Arthritis: 39
2.29.2. rheumatism 40
2.29.3.Chronic Fatigue: 41
2.29.4.Cancer: 41
2.30.Neem and anti-microbial activity: 42-43
2.31.Detoxifying Effects 43
2.32.Gastric Health 43
2.33.Pore Size 44
2.34.Phytochemicals 44
2.34.1. antioxidant 45
2.35.flavonoids 46
2.35.1.Definition of Flavonoids: 46
2.35.2. health benefits to humans 48
2.35.3.Food sources: 49
2.35.4.Interactions: 50
2.36.Classification of Flavonoids 50-53
2.36.1.Flavanols and Flavonols 53
2.36.2.Flavanones and Flavones 54
2.37.Anthocyanins 58
2.38.Tannin: 63
2.39.Terpenene 63
2.40. Antioxidant Vitamins in Neem 64
2.41. Alkaloids: 65
2.42. Neem and Environmental Protection 68
2.42.1. Afforestation 68
2.43.Vitamins and Minerals in Neem Plant 69
2.43.1.Vitamins: 69
2.44.2.Minerals: 69
2.45.Anti-Vitamins. 71
2.46.Herbal Preparation 72
2.47. Traditional Herbal Extraction Methods 73
2.48.Method of Administration 73
2.49. Haematological Parameters 74
2.49.1.Haematocrit (Packed Cell Volume): 74
2.49.2. Elevated Haematocrit Levels 74
2.49.3.Lowered Haematocrit Levels 75
2.50.Platelet Count: 75
2.51.Differential Leucocyte Count 76
2.52. Red Blood Cell Count 78
2.53.Histology 79
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Materials And Methods 81
3.1. Materials 81
3.1.1 Reagents Used For The Study 81
3.1.2. APPARATUS 81
3.2. Methods 82
3.2.1. Sample Collection and Preparation 82
3.2.1.1. Sample Collection,Drying ,Cutting and Grinding 82
3.2.1.2 .Sample Preparation 82
3.3.Proximate 83
3.3.1.Crude Fibre Determination 83
3.3.2.Crude Protein Determination 83:
3.3.3.Crude Fat Determination: 85
3.3.4.Moisture Content Determination 85-86
3.3.5.Determination of Ash: 86
3.6.Determination of Carbohydrate 87
3.4.Phytochemical Study 87
3.4.1. Extraction and Phytochemical Determination 87
3.5.Mineral Study 88
3.5.1. Digestion 88
3.6. Vitamins 89 - 90
3.7.Haematological Study 91
3.7.1.Animals used for The Study 91
3.7.2.Haematological Parameters Analyzed 93
3.7.2.1 Haematocrit or Packed Cell Volume (Pcv) Determination. 93
3.7.2.2.White Cell Count (Wyngarden Method,1985). 94
3.7.3.Differential White Blood Cell Count( by Beckman Coulter method) 95
3.7.4.Platelet count by Haemacytometer counting method: 96
3.7.4.1.RBC Count (Haemacytometer counting method): 97
3.8. Histological Study: 98
3.8.1 Fixation: 98
3.8.2.Embedding: 99
3.8.3.Sectioning: 99
3.8.4.Staining: 99
3.8.5.Mounting: 100
3.9.Statistical Analysis oF Data 100
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.0.Results: 101
4.1. Proximate Analysis 101-104
4.2. Phytochemistry 105
4.5. Qualitative 105
4.3.Quantitative Analysis 107-110
4.3 Vitamins: 111
4.4. Minerals 112
4.5. Haematological Study 113
4.6. Histopathological Study 114-198
4.1. Discussion: 199-204
CHAPTER FIVE:
5.0. Conclusion and Recommendation 205
5.1. Conclusion 205
5.3.Recommendation: 206
5.4.Contribution to Knowledge 206
Reference
APPENDIX
ABSTRACT
The nutritional and chemical constituents of different extracts of Neem leaf (Azdirachta indica) and their effect on the haematology and histopathology of Wistar Albino Rats were investigated. The samples analyzed includes processed and unprocessed leaves extract of Neem plant using cold water, hot water, 40% ethanol, 30% methanol, 70% ethanol and methanol; And also,Wistar Albino Rats (25) which were administered with extracts(processed and unprocessed) were divided into five(5) groups having five in each cage and one group as control. The phyotchemistry of the Neem leaves extract were determined in triplicates, qualitatively and quantitatively using standard methods. The proximate study carried out on the processed and unprocessed was observed to contain carbohydrate ˃ moisture ˃ fat ˃ fibre ˃ protein ˃ ash. Phytochemical studies on the leaves determined, detected presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, saponnins, oxalate, phenol, tannin, steriod, glycosides, reducing sugar and carbohydrate. The results are presented as mean ± STD of trplicate determination and means were compared using one-way ANOVA statitical analysis at 0.05 significance level. Rutin, ranging from 0.000 ± 0.01 to 77.543 ± 0.040,was observed to have high yield present in the processed and unprocessed leaves (14.290 ± 0.010 to 77.543 ± 0.040) while spartein was the lowest (0.002 ± 0.00 to 0.005 ± 0.00). The vitamins A,C,E and Riboflavin were determined, ranging from 0.89 ± 0.007 to 375.74 ± 1.22 amongst all samples,vitamin c was observed to be in high yield than any other of the vitamins. The total mineral concentration present in neem plant leaves extract were determined; and it was observed to contain Manganese , cobalt, zinc, copper, lead, nickel, sodium, potassium, magnesium and chromium ranging from 0.003 to 23.529; But magnesium was observed to be in high yield ranging from 20.768 to 23.529.The haematological study of the animals treated using the processed leaves extract and after 24 hours of starvation were observed to have high count of platelets when compared with the controls(220 μl/kg to 350μl/kg);also the WBC count range was significantly decreased (4.0 to 14.0) /L when observed with the controls(13.00±0.00)/L,the RBC showed a significant increase, ranging from 4.5μl to 7.2μl when compared with the control(4.5±0.00)/L.The HB count significantly increased from 10.7g/dl to 16.7g/dl when compared with the control(10.70±0.00)g/dL. The Histopathological study using liver and kidney,viewed under light microscope revealed spots and damages of the heart and liver,leading to distortion and haemorrhage. In conclusion,the consumption of alcoholic neem leaves extract during starvation and without dosage is toxic,harmful and can lead to death,especially when allowed to ferment due to bacteria activities than the hot water and tap water extract of neem leaves which is more safe to consumed with or without meal .
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page i
Certification ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgement iv
Abstract v
Table of contents vi-xi
List of Table xii
List of figure xiii-xix
List of abbreviation xx
CHAPTER ONE
1.0. Introduction 1
1.1 Back Ground of Study 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem 3
1.3. AIM AND OBJECTIVES 4
1.3.1.AIM 4
1.3.2. OBJECTIVES. 4
1.4. SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY 4
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW 5
2.1 Azadirachtaindica (Neem). 5
2.2. Neem in Hindu Mythology 10
2.3. NEEM AS A WEED 11
2.4 TAXONOMICAL CLASSIFICATION OF NEEM. 11
2.5. Chemical Properties 12
2.6. CHEMISTRY OF NEEM: 13 2.7. USES AND BENEFITS OF NEEM TREE PARTS. 16
2.7.1 USES 16
2.7.1.1.STORAGE 16
2.7.1.2. INSECTICDES 16
2.8.Cosmetic uses 16
2.9.VEGETABLE USE OF NEEM 17
2.10.TRADITIONAL MEDICINAL USE OF NEEM 17
2.11. Name and uses of neem tree in the different African countries 18
2.12.Panacea for All Diseases: 22
2.13. Benefits of Neem Tree parts 22
2.13.1.Benefits of Neem leaves 22
2.13.1.1.Eye problems 23
2.13.1.2.Viral Diseases 23
2.14.Neem Effects against Bacteria 23
2.15.Neem Effects against Viruses 24
2.16.Neem Effects against Fungi 24
2.17.Neem Effects against Parasites 25
2.17.1.De-worming 26
2.17.2.Cardiac Care: 26
2.17.3.Natural Pesticide: 27
2.17.4.Fungal Diseases: 27
2.17.5.Post-Parturition Disorder 27
2.17.6.Skin Care: 28
2.18. neem and diabetes 28
2.19. Uses of Neem Seeds and Fruits 30
2.19.1.Skin Problems 30
2.19.2.Hair Care 30
2.19.3.Eye and Ear Infections: 30
2.20.Other Ailments: 31
2.20.1.Malaria: 31
2.20.2. neem cake organic manure 31
2.20.3.Components 31
2.20.4.Use as a fertilizer 32
2.20.5.Pest control 32
2.21.Neem Disadvantages: 33
2.21.1.Strong Smell: 33
2.21.2.Bitter Taste 33
2.21.3.DANGER: 34
2.22.CHOLESTEROL 34
2.23. USE AS CONTRACEPTIVE IN BOTH MALE AND FEMALE: 35
2.23.1.NEEM OIL - DIRECT USE: 36
2.24.NEEM - CONTRACEPTIVE FOR MEN: 36
2.25.Insect Repellent: 37
2.26.Flea Repellent : 37
2.27.Uses of Neem Bark 38
2.27.1.Oral Health 38
2.27.2.Fever 38
2.27.3.Pile 38
2.28.Uses of Neem Flower 38-39
2.29. Other Medical Benefits of Neem Tree 39
2.29.1.Arthritis: 39
2.29.2. rheumatism 40
2.29.3.Chronic Fatigue: 41
2.29.4.Cancer: 41
2.30.Neem and anti-microbial activity: 42-43
2.31.Detoxifying Effects 43
2.32.Gastric Health 43
2.33.Pore Size 44
2.34.Phytochemicals 44
2.34.1. antioxidant 45
2.35.flavonoids 46
2.35.1.Definition of Flavonoids: 46
2.35.2. health benefits to humans 48
2.35.3.Food sources: 49
2.35.4.Interactions: 50
2.36.Classification of Flavonoids 50-53
2.36.1.Flavanols and Flavonols 53
2.36.2.Flavanones and Flavones 54
2.37.Anthocyanins 58
2.38.Tannin: 63
2.39.Terpenene 63
2.40. Antioxidant Vitamins in Neem 64
2.41. Alkaloids: 65
2.42. Neem and Environmental Protection 68
2.42.1. Afforestation 68
2.43.Vitamins and Minerals in Neem Plant 69
2.43.1.Vitamins: 69
2.44.2.Minerals: 69
2.45.Anti-Vitamins. 71
2.46.Herbal Preparation 72
2.47. Traditional Herbal Extraction Methods 73
2.48.Method of Administration 73
2.49. Haematological Parameters 74
2.49.1.Haematocrit (Packed Cell Volume): 74
2.49.2. Elevated Haematocrit Levels 74
2.49.3.Lowered Haematocrit Levels 75
2.50.Platelet Count: 75
2.51.Differential Leucocyte Count 76
2.52. Red Blood Cell Count 78
2.53.Histology 79
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Materials And Methods 81
3.1. Materials 81
3.1.1 Reagents Used For The Study 81
3.1.2. APPARATUS 81
3.2. Methods 82
3.2.1. Sample Collection and Preparation 82
3.2.1.1. Sample Collection,Drying ,Cutting and Grinding 82
3.2.1.2 .Sample Preparation 82
3.3.Proximate 83
3.3.1.Crude Fibre Determination 83
3.3.2.Crude Protein Determination 83:
3.3.3.Crude Fat Determination: 85
3.3.4.Moisture Content Determination 85-86
3.3.5.Determination of Ash: 86
3.6.Determination of Carbohydrate 87
3.4.Phytochemical Study 87
3.4.1. Extraction and Phytochemical Determination 87
3.5.Mineral Study 88
3.5.1. Digestion 88
3.6. Vitamins 89 - 90
3.7.Haematological Study 91
3.7.1.Animals used for The Study 91
3.7.2.Haematological Parameters Analyzed 93
3.7.2.1 Haematocrit or Packed Cell Volume (Pcv) Determination. 93
3.7.2.2.White Cell Count (Wyngarden Method,1985). 94
3.7.3.Differential White Blood Cell Count( by Beckman Coulter method) 95
3.7.4.Platelet count by Haemacytometer counting method: 96
3.7.4.1.RBC Count (Haemacytometer counting method): 97
3.8. Histological Study: 98
3.8.1 Fixation: 98
3.8.2.Embedding: 99
3.8.3.Sectioning: 99
3.8.4.Staining: 99
3.8.5.Mounting: 100
3.9.Statistical Analysis oF Data 100
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.0.Results: 101
4.1. Proximate Analysis 101-104
4.2. Phytochemistry 105
4.5. Qualitative 105
4.3.Quantitative Analysis 107-110
4.3 Vitamins: 111
4.4. Minerals 112
4.5. Haematological Study 113
4.6. Histopathological Study 114-198
4.1. Discussion: 199-204
CHAPTER FIVE:
5.0. Conclusion and Recommendation 205
5.1. Conclusion 205
5.3.Recommendation: 206
5.4.Contribution to Knowledge 206
Reference
APPENDIX
ABSTRACT
The nutritional and chemical constituents of different extracts of Neem leaf (Azdirachta indica) and their effect on the haematology and histopathology of Wistar Albino Rats were investigated. The samples analyzed includes processed and unprocessed leaves extract of Neem plant using cold water, hot water, 40% ethanol, 30% methanol, 70% ethanol and methanol; And also,Wistar Albino Rats (25) which were administered with extracts(processed and unprocessed) were divided into five(5) groups having five in each cage and one group as control. The phyotchemistry of the Neem leaves extract were determined in triplicates, qualitatively and quantitatively using standard methods. The proximate study carried out on the processed and unprocessed was observed to contain carbohydrate ˃ moisture ˃ fat ˃ fibre ˃ protein ˃ ash. Phytochemical studies on the leaves determined, detected presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, saponnins, oxalate, phenol, tannin, steriod, glycosides, reducing sugar and carbohydrate. The results are presented as mean ± STD of trplicate determination and means were compared using one-way ANOVA statitical analysis at 0.05 significance level. Rutin, ranging from 0.000 ± 0.01 to 77.543 ± 0.040,was observed to have high yield present in the processed and unprocessed leaves (14.290 ± 0.010 to 77.543 ± 0.040) while spartein was the lowest (0.002 ± 0.00 to 0.005 ± 0.00). The vitamins A,C,E and Riboflavin were determined, ranging from 0.89 ± 0.007 to 375.74 ± 1.22 amongst all samples,vitamin c was observed to be in high yield than any other of the vitamins. The total mineral concentration present in neem plant leaves extract were determined; and it was observed to contain Manganese , cobalt, zinc, copper, lead, nickel, sodium, potassium, magnesium and chromium ranging from 0.003 to 23.529; But magnesium was observed to be in high yield ranging from 20.768 to 23.529.The haematological study of the animals treated using the processed leaves extract and after 24 hours of starvation were observed to have high count of platelets when compared with the controls(220 μl/kg to 350μl/kg);also the WBC count range was significantly decreased (4.0 to 14.0) /L when observed with the controls(13.00±0.00)/L,the RBC showed a significant increase, ranging from 4.5μl to 7.2μl when compared with the control(4.5±0.00)/L.The HB count significantly increased from 10.7g/dl to 16.7g/dl when compared with the control(10.70±0.00)g/dL. The Histopathological study using liver and kidney,viewed under light microscope revealed spots and damages of the heart and liver,leading to distortion and haemorrhage. In conclusion,the consumption of alcoholic neem leaves extract during starvation and without dosage is toxic,harmful and can lead to death,especially when allowed to ferment due to bacteria activities than the hot water and tap water extract of neem leaves which is more safe to consumed with or without meal .
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page i
Certification ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgement iv
Abstract v
Table of contents vi-xi
List of Table xii
List of figure xiii-xix
List of abbreviation xx
CHAPTER ONE
1.0. Introduction 1
1.1 Back Ground of Study 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem 3
1.3. AIM AND OBJECTIVES 4
1.3.1.AIM 4
1.3.2. OBJECTIVES. 4
1.4. SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY 4
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW 5
2.1 Azadirachtaindica (Neem). 5
2.2. Neem in Hindu Mythology 10
2.3. NEEM AS A WEED 11
2.4 TAXONOMICAL CLASSIFICATION OF NEEM. 11
2.5. Chemical Properties 12
2.6. CHEMISTRY OF NEEM: 13 2.7. USES AND BENEFITS OF NEEM TREE PARTS. 16
2.7.1 USES 16
2.7.1.1.STORAGE 16
2.7.1.2. INSECTICDES 16
2.8.Cosmetic uses 16
2.9.VEGETABLE USE OF NEEM 17
2.10.TRADITIONAL MEDICINAL USE OF NEEM 17
2.11. Name and uses of neem tree in the different African countries 18
2.12.Panacea for All Diseases: 22
2.13. Benefits of Neem Tree parts 22
2.13.1.Benefits of Neem leaves 22
2.13.1.1.Eye problems 23
2.13.1.2.Viral Diseases 23
2.14.Neem Effects against Bacteria 23
2.15.Neem Effects against Viruses 24
2.16.Neem Effects against Fungi 24
2.17.Neem Effects against Parasites 25
2.17.1.De-worming 26
2.17.2.Cardiac Care: 26
2.17.3.Natural Pesticide: 27
2.17.4.Fungal Diseases: 27
2.17.5.Post-Parturition Disorder 27
2.17.6.Skin Care: 28
2.18. neem and diabetes 28
2.19. Uses of Neem Seeds and Fruits 30
2.19.1.Skin Problems 30
2.19.2.Hair Care 30
2.19.3.Eye and Ear Infections: 30
2.20.Other Ailments: 31
2.20.1.Malaria: 31
2.20.2. neem cake organic manure 31
2.20.3.Components 31
2.20.4.Use as a fertilizer 32
2.20.5.Pest control 32
2.21.Neem Disadvantages: 33
2.21.1.Strong Smell: 33
2.21.2.Bitter Taste 33
2.21.3.DANGER: 34
2.22.CHOLESTEROL 34
2.23. USE AS CONTRACEPTIVE IN BOTH MALE AND FEMALE: 35
2.23.1.NEEM OIL - DIRECT USE: 36
2.24.NEEM - CONTRACEPTIVE FOR MEN: 36
2.25.Insect Repellent: 37
2.26.Flea Repellent : 37
2.27.Uses of Neem Bark 38
2.27.1.Oral Health 38
2.27.2.Fever 38
2.27.3.Pile 38
2.28.Uses of Neem Flower 38-39
2.29. Other Medical Benefits of Neem Tree 39
2.29.1.Arthritis: 39
2.29.2. rheumatism 40
2.29.3.Chronic Fatigue: 41
2.29.4.Cancer: 41
2.30.Neem and anti-microbial activity: 42-43
2.31.Detoxifying Effects 43
2.32.Gastric Health 43
2.33.Pore Size 44
2.34.Phytochemicals 44
2.34.1. antioxidant 45
2.35.flavonoids 46
2.35.1.Definition of Flavonoids: 46
2.35.2. health benefits to humans 48
2.35.3.Food sources: 49
2.35.4.Interactions: 50
2.36.Classification of Flavonoids 50-53
2.36.1.Flavanols and Flavonols 53
2.36.2.Flavanones and Flavones 54
2.37.Anthocyanins 58
2.38.Tannin: 63
2.39.Terpenene 63
2.40. Antioxidant Vitamins in Neem 64
2.41. Alkaloids: 65
2.42. Neem and Environmental Protection 68
2.42.1. Afforestation 68
2.43.Vitamins and Minerals in Neem Plant 69
2.43.1.Vitamins: 69
2.44.2.Minerals: 69
2.45.Anti-Vitamins. 71
2.46.Herbal Preparation 72
2.47. Traditional Herbal Extraction Methods 73
2.48.Method of Administration 73
2.49. Haematological Parameters 74
2.49.1.Haematocrit (Packed Cell Volume): 74
2.49.2. Elevated Haematocrit Levels 74
2.49.3.Lowered Haematocrit Levels 75
2.50.Platelet Count: 75
2.51.Differential Leucocyte Count 76
2.52. Red Blood Cell Count 78
2.53.Histology 79
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Materials And Methods 81
3.1. Materials 81
3.1.1 Reagents Used For The Study 81
3.1.2. APPARATUS 81
3.2. Methods 82
3.2.1. Sample Collection and Preparation 82
3.2.1.1. Sample Collection,Drying ,Cutting and Grinding 82
3.2.1.2 .Sample Preparation 82
3.3.Proximate 83
3.3.1.Crude Fibre Determination 83
3.3.2.Crude Protein Determination 83:
3.3.3.Crude Fat Determination: 85
3.3.4.Moisture Content Determination 85-86
3.3.5.Determination of Ash: 86
3.6.Determination of Carbohydrate 87
3.4.Phytochemical Study 87
3.4.1. Extraction and Phytochemical Determination 87
3.5.Mineral Study 88
3.5.1. Digestion 88
3.6. Vitamins 89 - 90
3.7.Haematological Study 91
3.7.1.Animals used for The Study 91
3.7.2.Haematological Parameters Analyzed 93
3.7.2.1 Haematocrit or Packed Cell Volume (Pcv) Determination. 93
3.7.2.2.White Cell Count (Wyngarden Method,1985). 94
3.7.3.Differential White Blood Cell Count( by Beckman Coulter method) 95
3.7.4.Platelet count by Haemacytometer counting method: 96
3.7.4.1.RBC Count (Haemacytometer counting method): 97
3.8. Histological Study: 98
3.8.1 Fixation: 98
3.8.2.Embedding: 99
3.8.3.Sectioning: 99
3.8.4.Staining: 99
3.8.5.Mounting: 100
3.9.Statistical Analysis oF Data 100
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.0.Results: 101
4.1. Proximate Analysis 101-104
4.2. Phytochemistry 105
4.5. Qualitative 105
4.3.Quantitative Analysis 107-110
4.3 Vitamins: 111
4.4. Minerals 112
4.5. Haematological Study 113
4.6. Histopathological Study 114-198
4.1. Discussion: 199-204
CHAPTER FIVE:
5.0. Conclusion and Recommendation 205
5.1. Conclusion 205
5.3.Recommendation: 206
5.4.Contribution to Knowledge 206
Reference
APPENDIX
ABSTRACT
The nutritional and chemical constituents of different extracts of Neem leaf (Azdirachta indica) and their effect on the haematology and histopathology of Wistar Albino Rats were investigated. The samples analyzed includes processed and unprocessed leaves extract of Neem plant using cold water, hot water, 40% ethanol, 30% methanol, 70% ethanol and methanol; And also,Wistar Albino Rats (25) which were administered with extracts(processed and unprocessed) were divided into five(5) groups having five in each cage and one group as control. The phyotchemistry of the Neem leaves extract were determined in triplicates, qualitatively and quantitatively using standard methods. The proximate study carried out on the processed and unprocessed was observed to contain carbohydrate ˃ moisture ˃ fat ˃ fibre ˃ protein ˃ ash. Phytochemical studies on the leaves determined, detected presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, saponnins, oxalate, phenol, tannin, steriod, glycosides, reducing sugar and carbohydrate. The results are presented as mean ± STD of trplicate determination and means were compared using one-way ANOVA statitical analysis at 0.05 significance level. Rutin, ranging from 0.000 ± 0.01 to 77.543 ± 0.040,was observed to have high yield present in the processed and unprocessed leaves (14.290 ± 0.010 to 77.543 ± 0.040) while spartein was the lowest (0.002 ± 0.00 to 0.005 ± 0.00). The vitamins A,C,E and Riboflavin were determined, ranging from 0.89 ± 0.007 to 375.74 ± 1.22 amongst all samples,vitamin c was observed to be in high yield than any other of the vitamins. The total mineral concentration present in neem plant leaves extract were determined; and it was observed to contain Manganese , cobalt, zinc, copper, lead, nickel, sodium, potassium, magnesium and chromium ranging from 0.003 to 23.529; But magnesium was observed to be in high yield ranging from 20.768 to 23.529.The haematological study of the animals treated using the processed leaves extract and after 24 hours of starvation were observed to have high count of platelets when compared with the controls(220 μl/kg to 350μl/kg);also the WBC count range was significantly decreased (4.0 to 14.0) /L when observed with the controls(13.00±0.00)/L,the RBC showed a significant increase, ranging from 4.5μl to 7.2μl when compared with the control(4.5±0.00)/L.The HB count significantly increased from 10.7g/dl to 16.7g/dl when compared with the control(10.70±0.00)g/dL. The Histopathological study using liver and kidney,viewed under light microscope revealed spots and damages of the heart and liver,leading to distortion and haemorrhage. In conclusion,the consumption of alcoholic neem leaves extract during starvation and without dosage is toxic,harmful and can lead to death,especially when allowed to ferment due to bacteria activities than the hot water and tap water extract of neem leaves which is more safe to consumed with or without meal .
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page i
Certification ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgement iv
Abstract v
Table of contents vi-xi
List of Table xii
List of figure xiii-xix
List of abbreviation xx
CHAPTER ONE
1.0. Introduction 1
1.1 Back Ground of Study 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem 3
1.3. AIM AND OBJECTIVES 4
1.3.1.AIM 4
1.3.2. OBJECTIVES. 4
1.4. SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY 4
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW 5
2.1 Azadirachtaindica (Neem). 5
2.2. Neem in Hindu Mythology 10
2.3. NEEM AS A WEED 11
2.4 TAXONOMICAL CLASSIFICATION OF NEEM. 11
2.5. Chemical Properties 12
2.6. CHEMISTRY OF NEEM: 13 2.7. USES AND BENEFITS OF NEEM TREE PARTS. 16
2.7.1 USES 16
2.7.1.1.STORAGE 16
2.7.1.2. INSECTICDES 16
2.8.Cosmetic uses 16
2.9.VEGETABLE USE OF NEEM 17
2.10.TRADITIONAL MEDICINAL USE OF NEEM 17
2.11. Name and uses of neem tree in the different African countries 18
2.12.Panacea for All Diseases: 22
2.13. Benefits of Neem Tree parts 22
2.13.1.Benefits of Neem leaves 22
2.13.1.1.Eye problems 23
2.13.1.2.Viral Diseases 23
2.14.Neem Effects against Bacteria 23
2.15.Neem Effects against Viruses 24
2.16.Neem Effects against Fungi 24
2.17.Neem Effects against Parasites 25
2.17.1.De-worming 26
2.17.2.Cardiac Care: 26
2.17.3.Natural Pesticide: 27
2.17.4.Fungal Diseases: 27
2.17.5.Post-Parturition Disorder 27
2.17.6.Skin Care: 28
2.18. neem and diabetes 28
2.19. Uses of Neem Seeds and Fruits 30
2.19.1.Skin Problems 30
2.19.2.Hair Care 30
2.19.3.Eye and Ear Infections: 30
2.20.Other Ailments: 31
2.20.1.Malaria: 31
2.20.2. neem cake organic manure 31
2.20.3.Components 31
2.20.4.Use as a fertilizer 32
2.20.5.Pest control 32
2.21.Neem Disadvantages: 33
2.21.1.Strong Smell: 33
2.21.2.Bitter Taste 33
2.21.3.DANGER: 34
2.22.CHOLESTEROL 34
2.23. USE AS CONTRACEPTIVE IN BOTH MALE AND FEMALE: 35
2.23.1.NEEM OIL - DIRECT USE: 36
2.24.NEEM - CONTRACEPTIVE FOR MEN: 36
2.25.Insect Repellent: 37
2.26.Flea Repellent : 37
2.27.Uses of Neem Bark 38
2.27.1.Oral Health 38
2.27.2.Fever 38
2.27.3.Pile 38
2.28.Uses of Neem Flower 38-39
2.29. Other Medical Benefits of Neem Tree 39
2.29.1.Arthritis: 39
2.29.2. rheumatism 40
2.29.3.Chronic Fatigue: 41
2.29.4.Cancer: 41
2.30.Neem and anti-microbial activity: 42-43
2.31.Detoxifying Effects 43
2.32.Gastric Health 43
2.33.Pore Size 44
2.34.Phytochemicals 44
2.34.1. antioxidant 45
2.35.flavonoids 46
2.35.1.Definition of Flavonoids: 46
2.35.2. health benefits to humans 48
2.35.3.Food sources: 49
2.35.4.Interactions: 50
2.36.Classification of Flavonoids 50-53
2.36.1.Flavanols and Flavonols 53
2.36.2.Flavanones and Flavones 54
2.37.Anthocyanins 58
2.38.Tannin: 63
2.39.Terpenene 63
2.40. Antioxidant Vitamins in Neem 64
2.41. Alkaloids: 65
2.42. Neem and Environmental Protection 68
2.42.1. Afforestation 68
2.43.Vitamins and Minerals in Neem Plant 69
2.43.1.Vitamins: 69
2.44.2.Minerals: 69
2.45.Anti-Vitamins. 71
2.46.Herbal Preparation 72
2.47. Traditional Herbal Extraction Methods 73
2.48.Method of Administration 73
2.49. Haematological Parameters 74
2.49.1.Haematocrit (Packed Cell Volume): 74
2.49.2. Elevated Haematocrit Levels 74
2.49.3.Lowered Haematocrit Levels 75
2.50.Platelet Count: 75
2.51.Differential Leucocyte Count 76
2.52. Red Blood Cell Count 78
2.53.Histology 79
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Materials And Methods 81
3.1. Materials 81
3.1.1 Reagents Used For The Study 81
3.1.2. APPARATUS 81
3.2. Methods 82
3.2.1. Sample Collection and Preparation 82
3.2.1.1. Sample Collection,Drying ,Cutting and Grinding 82
3.2.1.2 .Sample Preparation 82
3.3.Proximate 83
3.3.1.Crude Fibre Determination 83
3.3.2.Crude Protein Determination 83:
3.3.3.Crude Fat Determination: 85
3.3.4.Moisture Content Determination 85-86
3.3.5.Determination of Ash: 86
3.6.Determination of Carbohydrate 87
3.4.Phytochemical Study 87
3.4.1. Extraction and Phytochemical Determination 87
3.5.Mineral Study 88
3.5.1. Digestion 88
3.6. Vitamins 89 - 90
3.7.Haematological Study 91
3.7.1.Animals used for The Study 91
3.7.2.Haematological Parameters Analyzed 93
3.7.2.1 Haematocrit or Packed Cell Volume (Pcv) Determination. 93
3.7.2.2.White Cell Count (Wyngarden Method,1985). 94
3.7.3.Differential White Blood Cell Count( by Beckman Coulter method) 95
3.7.4.Platelet count by Haemacytometer counting method: 96
3.7.4.1.RBC Count (Haemacytometer counting method): 97
3.8. Histological Study: 98
3.8.1 Fixation: 98
3.8.2.Embedding: 99
3.8.3.Sectioning: 99
3.8.4.Staining: 99
3.8.5.Mounting: 100
3.9.Statistical Analysis oF Data 100
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.0.Results: 101
4.1. Proximate Analysis 101-104
4.2. Phytochemistry 105
4.5. Qualitative 105
4.3.Quantitative Analysis 107-110
4.3 Vitamins: 111
4.4. Minerals 112
4.5. Haematological Study 113
4.6. Histopathological Study 114-198
4.1. Discussion: 199-204
CHAPTER FIVE:
5.0. Conclusion and Recommendation 205
5.1. Conclusion 205
5.3.Recommendation: 206
5.4.Contribution to Knowledge 206
Reference
APPENDIX
EMELIEZE, N., BENJAMIN, A , MARY, E , CHARITY, O , EMMANUEL, A & PETER, A (2019). The nutritional and chemical constituents of different extracts of Neem leaf (Azdirachta indica) and their effect on the haematology and histopathology of Wistar Albino Rats. Afribary. Retrieved from https://afribary.com/works/full-work-pub-article
EMELIEZE, NNEKA, et. al. "The nutritional and chemical constituents of different extracts of Neem leaf (Azdirachta indica) and their effect on the haematology and histopathology of Wistar Albino Rats" Afribary. Afribary, 25 Feb. 2019, https://afribary.com/works/full-work-pub-article. Accessed 20 Apr. 2024.
EMELIEZE, NNEKA, AMADI BENJAMIN , EMELIEZE MARY , OGUNKA CHARITY , AGOMUO EMMANUEL and AND PETER . "The nutritional and chemical constituents of different extracts of Neem leaf (Azdirachta indica) and their effect on the haematology and histopathology of Wistar Albino Rats". Afribary, Afribary, 25 Feb. 2019. Web. 20 Apr. 2024. < https://afribary.com/works/full-work-pub-article >.
EMELIEZE, NNEKA, AMADI BENJAMIN , EMELIEZE MARY , OGUNKA CHARITY , AGOMUO EMMANUEL and AND PETER . "The nutritional and chemical constituents of different extracts of Neem leaf (Azdirachta indica) and their effect on the haematology and histopathology of Wistar Albino Rats" Afribary (2019). Accessed April 20, 2024. https://afribary.com/works/full-work-pub-article